Metallic Layer Comprising Alkali Metal and Second Metal

ABSTRACT

The present invention relates to a metallic layer adjacent to a semiconducting layer comprising a substantially covalent matrix material, the metallic layer comprising at least one first metal and at least one second metal, wherein a) the first metal is selected from the group consisting of Li, Na, K, Rb, Cs; and b) the second metal is selected from the group consisting of Zn, Hg, Cd, Te, electronic devices comprising such materials and process for preparing the same.

The present invention concerns a metallic material, a metallic layer consisting of the metallic material and electronic device comprising the metallic layer, as well as processes for preparation thereof, metal alloys applicable as intermediates for preparing the metallic layers and electronic devices of present invention.

I. BACKGROUND OF THE INVENTION

Among the electronic devices comprising at least a part based on material provided by organic chemistry, organic light emitting diodes (OLEDs) have a prominent position. Since the demonstration of efficient OLEDs by Tang et al. in 1987 (C. W. Tang et al., Appl. Phys. Lett. 51 (12), 913 (1987)), OLEDs developed from promising candidates to high-end commercial displays. An OLED comprises a sequence of thin layers substantially made of organic materials. The layers typically have a thickness in the range of 1 nm to 5 μm. The layers are usually formed either by means of vacuum deposition or from a solution, for example by means of spin coating or jet printing.

OLEDs emit light after the injection of charge carriers in the form of electrons from the cathode and in form of holes from the anode into organic layers arranged in between. The charge carrier injection is effected on the basis of an applied external voltage, the subsequent formation of excitons in a light emitting zone and the radiative recombination of those excitons. At least one of the electrodes is transparent or semitransparent, in the majority of cases in the form of a transparent oxide, such as indium tin oxide (ITO), or a thin metal layer.

Among the matrix compounds used in OLED light emitting layers (LELs) or electron transporting layers (ETLs), important position have the compounds that comprise at least one structural moiety comprising a delocalized system of conjugated electrons and/or compounds which comprise atoms bearing free electron pairs. During last decade, a particular attention attracted matrix compounds showing various combinations of both functional features—the presence of free electron pairs, localized for example on atoms of 15^(th)-16^(th) group of the Periodic Table, as well as the presence of delocalized systems of conjugated electrons, provided most frequently in form or unsaturated organic compounds. Currently, broad spectrum of electron transport matrices is available, ranging from hydrocarbon matrices comprising only homocyclic aromatic systems and/or double and triple carbon-carbon bonds, to matrices comprising highly polar groups selected from phosphine oxide and diazole.

Electrical doping of charge transporting semiconducting materials for improving their electrical properties, especially conductivity, is known since 1990s, e.g. from U.S. Pat. No. 5,093,698 A. An especially simple method for n-doping in ETLs prepared by the thermal vacuum deposition, which is currently the standard method most frequently used, e.g. in industrial manufacture of displays, is vaporization of a matrix compound from one vaporization source and of a highly electropositive metal from another vaporization source and their co-deposition on a cool surface.

Besides the use of n-dopants in mixed layers comprising a matrix and the dopant, an alternative way for device design is the use of n-dopants in form of a layer adjacent to layer of the matrix material which has to be doped.

There is an inherent discrepancy between the need for stronger n-dopants and high reactivity and sensitivity of such dopant to ambient conditions, which makes their industrial application generally and, specifically, the fulfillment of contemporary quality assurance (QA) requirements difficult.

The state of the art is briefly summarized in a previous application published as WO2015/097232, in which applicants successfully addressed some of the above mentioned problems. Despite continuing progress in this field, there is still an unmet demand for strong n-dopants, able to provide high-performance semiconducting materials with a broad spectrum of matrix compounds, under mild and highly reproducible processing conditions.

It is an object of the invention to overcome the drawbacks of the prior art and to provide metallic layers with improved performance.

The second object of the invention is to provide electronic device utilizing the metallic layer adjacent to a substantially covalent layer.

The third object of the invention is to provide process for preparation of the improved metallic layer as well as for preparing electronic device comprising the improved metallic layer.

The fourth object of the invention is providing air stable metal compositions allowing easy preparation of the improved metallic layer and/or utilizable as advantageous intermediate in preparation of electronic devices comprising the improved metallic layer.

II. SUMMARY OF THE INVENTION

The object is achieved by a metallic layer adjacent to semiconducting a layer comprising a substantially covalent matrix material, the metallic layer comprising at least one first metal and at least one second metal, wherein

(i) the first metal is selected from the group consisting of Li, Na, K, Rb, and Cs, and

(ii) the second metal is selected from the group consisting of Zn, Cd, Hg and Te.

It is to be understood that the term “metallic” refers to a material, layer, electrode or a cathode consisting of at least 90 atomic %, preferably at least 95 at %, more preferably at least 98 at %, even more preferably at least 99 at %, most preferably at least 99.9 at % of metallic elements. All elements except hydrogen, boron, carbon, silicon, nitrogen, phosphorus, arsenic, oxygen, sulfur, selenium, halogens and rare gases are considered metallic in this application. The metallic layer may exhibit metallic electrical conductivity or semiconductivity.

In one embodiment, the first metal is selected from Li and Na and/or the second metal is selected from Zn and Te. In a preferred embodiment, the first metal is Na and the second metal is Zn.

It is preferred that the total amount of the first metal is more than 0.01 weight %, preferably more than 0.1 wt %, more preferably more than 0.5 wt %, even more preferably more than 1 wt %, most preferably more than 2 wt %, and still preferably more than 5 wt % of the metallic layer.

In another embodiment, the total amount of the first metal is less than 95 wt %, preferably less than 90 wt %, more preferably less than 50 wt %, even more preferably less than 20 wt %, most preferably less than 10 wt %, and still preferably less than 5 wt % of the total amount of the first and second metal in the metallic layer.

Preferably, the total amount of the first and second metal is at least 90 wt %, more preferably at least 95 wt %, even more preferably at least 98 wt %, even more preferably at least 99 wt %, most preferably at least 99.5 wt % of the metallic layer. Preferably, the metallic layer has thickness in the range 1-100 nm, more preferably in the range 2-50 nm, even more preferably in the range 3-30 nm, most preferably in the range 5-20 nm.

In one of preferred embodiments, the metallic layer is substantially homogeneous. It is to be understood that the substantially homogeneous layer does not contain spatial domains which could be distinguished from each other in terms of chemical composition and/or physicochemical properties or such domains do not exceed in any direction the size 1 micrometer.

In another possible embodiment, the metallic layer is substantially isotropic. It is to be understood that in the substantially isotropic layer, any component or physico-chemical property of the layer does not exhibit systematic change in any chosen direction.

Preferably, the metallic layer is solid. It is supposed that the metallic layer is solid, if the solid state characteristics, like X-Ray diffraction pattern showing a crystalline structure, elastic behaviour, melting point or glass transition, are detectable either directly in the metallic layer or at least in a bulky phase having the chemical composition corresponding to the metallic layer.

It is to be understood that “substantially covalent” means compounds comprising elements bound together mostly by covalent bonds. Substantially covalent matrix material consists of at least one substantially covalent compound. Substantially covalent materials can comprise low molecular weight compounds which may be, preferably, stable enough to be processable by vacuum thermal evaporation (VTE) without decomposition. Alternatively, substantially covalent materials can comprise polymeric material comprising polymeric compounds. The layer comprising substantially covalent polymeric matrix material can be advantageously prepared by solution processing of a polymer soluble in a solvent.

Preferred polymeric substantially covalent matrix compounds comprise both skeletal as well as peripheral atoms. Skeletal atoms of the substantially covalent compound are covalently bound to at least two neighbour atoms. Other atoms of the substantially covalent compound are peripheral atoms which are covalently bound with a single neighbour atom. A compound comprising cations and anions is considered as substantially covalent, if at least the cation or at least the anion comprises at least ten covalently bound atoms.

Preferred examples of substantially covalent matrix compounds are organic compounds, consisting predominantly from covalently bound C, H, O, N, S, which may optionally comprise also covalently bound B, P, As, Se. Organometallic compounds comprising covalent bonds carbon-metal, metal complexes comprising organic ligands and metal salts of organic acids are further examples of organic compounds that may serve as organic matrix compounds.

In one embodiment, the organic matrix compound lacks metal atoms and majority of its skeletal atoms is selected from C, O, S, N.

In one of preferred embodiments, wherein the metal containing layer is suitable as electron transport layer or electron injection layer, it may be advantageous that reduction potential of any substantially covalent matrix compound of the substantially covalent matrix material, if measured by cyclic voltammetry under the same standardized conditions, has the value which is more negative than the value obtained for tetrakis(quinoxalin-5-yloxy)zirconium, preferably more negative than for 4,4′-bis(4,6-diphenyl-1,3,5-triazin-2-yl)-1,1′-biphenyl, more preferably more negative than for 2,4,6-tri(biphenyl-4-yl)-1,3,5-triazine, even more preferably more negative than for 2,4,6-triphenyltriazine, even more preferably more negative than for 2,4,7,9-tetraphenyl-1,10-phenanthroline, highly preferably more negative than for 4,7-diphenyl-1,10-phenanthroline, even more preferably more negative than for 1,3,5-tris(1-phenyl-1H-benzimidazol-2-yl)benzene, most preferably more negative than for pyrene and still preferably more negative than for [1,1′-binaphthalen]-2,2′-diylbis(diphenylphosphine oxide).

On the other hand, it is preferred that the substantially covalent matrix material consists of substantially covalent matrix compounds having their redox potentials, if measured for each compound individually under standardized conditions, less negative than N2,N2,N2′,N2′,N7,N7,N7′,NT-octaphenyl-9,9′-spirobi[fluorene]-2,2′,7,7′-tetraamine, preferably less negative than triphenylene, more preferably less negative than N4,N4′-di(naphthalen-1-yl)-N4,N4′-diphenyl-[1,1′-biphenyl]-4,4′-diamine, even more preferably less negative than bis(4-(9H-carbazol-9-yl)phenyl)(phenyl)phosphine oxide, most preferably less negative than 3-([1,1′-biphenyl]-4-yl)-5-(4-(tert-butyl)phenyl)-4-phenyl-4H-1,2,4-triazole.

In another embodiment, the substantially covalent matrix compound comprises a conjugated system of at least six, more preferably at least ten, even more preferably at least fourteen delocalized electrons.

Examples of conjugated systems of delocalized electrons are systems of alternating pi- and sigma bonds. Optionally, one or more two-atom structural units having the pi-bond between its atoms can be replaced by an atom bearing at least one lone electron pair, typically by a divalent atom selected from O, S, Se, Te or by a trivalent atom selected from N, P, As, Sb, Bi. Preferably, the conjugated system of delocalized electrons comprises at least one aromatic or heteroaromatic ring adhering to the Hückel rule. Also preferably, the substantially covalent matrix compound may comprise at least two aromatic or heteroaromatic rings which are either linked by a covalent bond or condensed.

In one of specific embodiments, the substantially covalent matrix compound comprises a ring consisting of covalently bound atoms and at least one atom in the ring is phosphorus.

In a more preferred embodiment, the phosphorus-containing ring consisting of covalently bound atoms is a phosphepine ring.

In another preferred embodiment, the substantially covalent matrix compound comprises a phosphine oxide group. Also preferably, the substantially covalent matrix compound comprises a heterocyclic ring comprising at least one nitrogen atom. Examples of nitrogen containing heterocyclic compounds which are particularly advantageous as organic matrix compound for the inventive semiconducting material are matrices comprising, alone or in combination, pyridine structural moieties, diazine structural moieties, triazine structural moieties, quinoline structural moieties, benzoquinoline structural moieties, quinazoline structural moieties, acridine structural moieties, benzacridine structural moieties, dibenzacridine structural moieties, diazole structural moieties and benzodiazole structural moieties.

The second object of the invention is achieved by an electronic device comprising at least two distinct layers sandwiched between a first electrode and a second electrode and, optionally, other parts of the device laying outside the space between the electrodes, wherein at least one of the sandwiched layers is the metallic layer and at least one of the sandwiched layers comprises the substantially covalent matrix material, as described in the preceding paragraphs.

Preferably, the device is an organic light emitting diode or an organic photovoltaic device.

In one embodiment, the metallic layer is adjacent to an electrode. More preferably, the electrode adjacent to the metallic layer is a cathode.

In one of preferred embodiments, the cathode is metallic. The metallic cathode may consist of a pure metal or of a metal alloy exhibiting metallic electrical conductivity or semiconductivity.

In another embodiment, the metallic layer may be provided as part of the charge generation layer, preferably as part of the electron injecting part of the charge generation layer.

It is understood that the definition of the term “metallic” as provided above for a material or layer applies equally for an electrode or a cathode.

The third object of the invention is achieved by process for preparation of the inventive metallic layer, the process comprising the steps

-   (i) providing the semiconducting layer, -   (ii) co-vaporizing at least one first metal and at least one second     metal at a pressure which is lower than 10⁻² Pa, preferably lower     than 5.10⁻³ Pa, more preferably lower than 10⁻³ Pa, even more     preferably lower than 5.10⁻⁴ Pa, most preferably lower than 10⁻⁴ Pa     from a composition provided in a vaporization source which is heated     to a temperature between 100° C. and 600° C., preferably between     150° C. and 550° C., more preferably between 200° C. and 500° C.,     even more preferably between 250° C. and 450° C., and most     preferably between 300° C. and 400° C., wherein the composition     comprises     -   a) at least one first metal selected from the group consisting         of Li, Na, K, Rb, Cs; and     -   b) at least one second metal selected from the group consisting         of Zn, Hg, Cd, Te, and -   (iii) at least one subsequent step of co-deposition, wherein at     least one first metal and at least one second metal are deposited on     a surface, wherein the surface is the surface of the layer provided     in the step (i) and the surface has a temperature which is below the     temperature of the vaporization source.

In one of embodiment, the composition provided in the vaporization source is substantially metallic. The term “substantially metallic composition” shall be understood as a composition that comprises at least one first metal and at least one second metal, each at least partially, in a substantially elemental form.

Under substantially elemental form, it is to be understood a form that is, in terms of electronic states and their energies and in terms of chemical bonds of comprised metal atoms, closer to the form of an elemental metal, of a free metal atom or to the form of a cluster of metal atoms, than to the form of a metal salt, of an organometallic metal compound or another compound comprising a covalent bond between metal and non-metal, or to the form of a coordination compound of a metal.

It is to be understood that metal alloys represent, besides neat elemental metals, atomized metals, metal molecules and metal clusters, another example of substantially elemental form of metals.

Preferred form of the substantially metallic composition is a metal alloy, more preferably, a homogeneous metal alloy, most preferably, an alloy which comprises at least one homogeneous phase comprising the first metal and the second metal.

Under metal alloy, it is to be understood a substantially metallic composition in which at least 90 atomic %, preferably at least 95 atomic %, more preferably at least 98 atomic %, even more preferably at least 99 atomic %, most preferably at least 99.9 atomic % are metallic elements. As already mentioned, all elements except hydrogen, boron, carbon, silicon, nitrogen, phosphorus, arsenic, oxygen, sulfur, selenium, halogens and rare gases are considered metallic. Under homogeneous metal alloy, it is to be understood an alloy consisting of a single solid or liquid phase. Preferably, the single phase is solid.

Preferred first metal in the composition provided in the vaporization source is sodium; preferred second metal in the composition provided in the vaporization source is zinc.

It is further preferred that in the metal alloy provided in the vaporization source, the total amount of the first and second metals in the alloy is at least 10 weight %, more preferably at least 50 weight %, even more preferably at least 90 weight %, even more preferably at least 95 weight %, most preferably at least 99 weight %.

Most preferably, the temperature of the vaporization source is lower than melting point of the metal alloy.

The third object of the invention is further achieved by a process for preparation of the inventive electronic device, the process comprising the steps

-   (i) providing subsequently the first electrode and, if present in     the device, the layers arranged between the first electrode and the     semiconducting layer, -   (ii) providing, subsequently, the semiconducting layer and the     metallic layer by the inventive process, and -   (iii) providing, if present in the device, the remaining layers     between the semiconducting layer and the second electrode, the     second electrode, and, if present, any other parts of the device     arranged outside the space between the electrodes.

The fourth object of the invention is achieved by metal alloys comprising at least one homogeneous phase comprising at least one first metal selected from Li, Na, K, Rb, Cs and at least one second metal selected from Zn, Cd, Hg and Te and by their use for preparing the inventive metallic layer described above and/or for preparing the electronic device comprising the inventive metallic layer.

Preferably, the second metal is Zn. More preferably, the Zn content in the alloy is at least 80 wt %, preferably more than 85 wt %, even more preferably more than 90 wt %, most preferably more than 95 wt %.

Also preferably, the total amount of the first metal in the alloy is at least 0.01 wt %, more preferably more than 0.1 wt %, even more preferably more than 0.5 wt %, even more preferably more than 1 wt %, most preferably more than 2 wt %, and still preferably more than 5 wt %.

III. BRIEF DESCRIPTION OF DRAWINGS

FIG. 1 shows a schematic illustration of a device in which the present invention can be incorporated.

FIG. 2 shows a schematic illustration of a device in which the present invention can be incorporated.

IV. DETAILED DESCRIPTION OF THE INVENTION

Device Architecture

FIG. 1 shows a stack of anode (10), organic semiconducting layer (11) comprising the light emitting layer, electron transporting layer (ETL) (12), and cathode (13). Other layers can be inserted between those depicted, as explained herein.

FIG. 2 shows a stack of an anode (20), a hole injecting and transporting layer (21), a hole transporting layer (22) which can also aggregate the function of electron blocking, a light emitting layer (23), an ETL (24), and a cathode (25). Other layers can be inserted between those depicted, as explained herein.

The wording “device” comprises the organic light emitting diode.

Material Properties—Energy Levels

A method to determine the ionization potentials (IP) is the ultraviolet photo spectroscopy (UPS). It is usual to measure the ionization potential for solid state materials; however, it is also possible to measure the IP in the gas phase. Both values are differentiated by their solid state effects, which are, for example the polarization energy of the holes that are created during the photo ionization process. A typical value for the polarization energy is approximately 1 eV, but larger discrepancies of the values can also occur. The IP is related to onset of the photoemission spectra in the region of the large kinetic energy of the photoelectrons, i.e. the energy of the most weakly bounded electrons. A related method to UPS, the inverted photo electron spectroscopy (IPES) can be used to determine the electron affinity (EA). However, this method is less common. Electrochemical measurements in solution are an alternative to the determination of solid state oxidation (E_(ox)) and reduction (E_(red)) potential. An adequate method is, for example, cyclic voltammetry. To avoid confusion, the claimed energy levels are defined in terms of comparison with reference compounds having well defined redox potentials in cyclic voltammetry, when measured by a standardized procedure. A simple rule is very often used for the conversion of redox potentials into electron affinities and ionization potential: IP (in eV)=4.8 eV+e*E_(ox) (wherein E_(ox) is given in volts vs. ferrocenium/ferrocene (Fc⁺/Fc)) and EA (in eV)=4.8 eV+e*E_(red) (E_(red) is given in volts vs. Fc⁺/Fc) respectively (see B. W. D'Andrade, Org. Electron. 6, 11-20 (2005)), e* is the elemental charge. Conversion factors for recalculation of the electrochemical potentials in the case other reference electrodes or other reference redox pairs are known (see A. J. Bard, L. R. Faulkner, “Electrochemical Methods: Fundamentals and Applications”, Wiley, 2. Ausgabe 2000). The information about the influence of the solution used can be found in N. G. Connelly et al., Chem. Rev. 96, 877 (1996). It is usual, even if not exactly correct, to use the terms “energy of the HOMO” E_((HOMO)) and “energy of the LUMO” E_((LUMO)), respectively, as synonyms for the ionization energy and electron affinity (Koopmans Theorem). It has to be taken into consideration that the ionization potentials and the electron affinities are usually reported in such a way that a larger value represents a stronger binding of a released or of an absorbed electron, respectively. The energy scale of the frontier molecular orbitals (HOMO, LUMO) is opposed to this. Therefore, in a rough approximation, the following equations are valid: IP=−E_((HOMO)) and EA=E_((LUMO)) (the zero energy is assigned to the vacuum).

For the chosen reference compounds, the inventors obtained following values of the reduction potential by standardized cyclic voltammetry in tetrahydrofuran (THF) solution vs. Fc⁺/Fc:

The standardized procedure is described in examples. As the values of redox potentials are readily experimentally accessible and are already known for many compounds from each class of compounds represented by these reference examples, each proven example of doping in a compound of certain class (e.g. triaryl triazine compounds) or subclass gives a valuable hint for applicability of the dopant in other compounds belonging to the same or similar type of matrices, if the substitution pattern provides similar redox potential. The broader the definition of the matrix compound, the broader the range of observed redox potentials. For example, triazine matrices lacking other polar groups have their standard redox potentials roughly in the range between −1.9 V and −2.3 V vs. Fc⁺/Fc reference, aromatic hydrocarbons between −2.2 V and −3.1 V, and the redox potential of phosphine oxides having aromatic substituents on the phosphorus atom, may be tuned in extremely broad range roughly between −1.8 V and −3.1 V, depending on the chosen aryl and heteroaryl groups.

Substrate

It can be flexible or rigid, transparent, opaque, reflective, or translucent. The substrate should be transparent or translucent if the light generated by the OLED is to be transmitted through the substrate (bottom emitting). The substrate may be opaque if the light generated by the OLED is to be emitted in the direction opposite of the substrate, the so called top-emitting type. The OLED can also be transparent. The substrate can be arranged adjacent either to the cathode or to the anode.

Electrodes

The electrodes are the anode and the cathode, they must provide a certain amount of conductivity, being preferentially conductors with high, metallic conductivity. Preferentially the “first electrode” is the anode. At least one of the electrodes must be semi-transparent or transparent to enable the light transmission to the outside of the device. Typical electrodes are layers or a stack of layer, comprising metal and/or transparent conductive oxide. Other possible electrodes are made of thin busbars (e.g. a thin metal grid) wherein the space between the busbars is filled (coated) with a transparent material having certain conductivity, such as graphene, carbon nanotubes, doped organic semiconductors, etc.

In one embodiment, the anode is the electrode closest to the substrate, which is called noninverted structure. In another mode, the cathode is the electrode closest to the substrate, which is called inverted structure.

Typical materials for the anode are ITO and Ag. Typical materials for the cathode are Mg:Ag (10 vol % of Mg), Ag, ITO, Al. Mixtures and multilayer cathodes are also possible.

Preferably, the cathode comprises a metal selected from Ag, Al, Mg, Ba, Ca, Yb, In, Zn, Sn, Sm, Bi, Eu, Li, more preferably from Al, Mg, Ca, Ba and even more preferably selected from Al or Mg. Preferred is also a cathode comprising an alloy of Mg and Ag.

It is one of the advantages of the present invention that it enables broad selection of cathode materials. Besides metals with low work function which are in most cases necessary for good performance of devices comprising the state-of-art n-doped ETL materials, also other metals or conductive metal oxides may be used as cathode materials. An advantageous embodiment is the use of cathodes prepared of metallic silver, because neat silver provides the best reflectivity, and thus best efficiency, specifically e.g. in bottom emitting devices built on a transparent substrate and having a transparent conductive oxide anode. Neat silver cathodes are not built into devices having undoped ETLs or ETLs doped with metal salt additives, because such devices show high operational voltages and low efficiencies due to poor electron injection.

It is equally well possible that the cathode is pre-formed on a substrate (then the device is an inverted device), or the cathode in a non-inverted device is formed by vacuum deposition of a metal or by sputtering.

Hole-Transporting Layer (HTL)

The HTL is a layer comprising a large gap semiconductor responsible to transport holes from the anode or holes from a CGL to the light emitting layer (LEL). The HTL is comprised between the anode and the LEL or between the hole generating side of a CGL and the LEL. The HTL can be mixed with another material, for example a p-dopant, in which case it is said the HTL is p-doped. The HTL can be comprised by several layers, which can have different compositions. P-doping of the HTL lowers its resistivity and avoids the respective power loss due to the otherwise high resistivity of the undoped semiconductor. The doped HTL can also be used as optical spacer, because it can be made very thick, up to 1000 nm or more without significant increase in resistivity.

Suitable hole transport matrices (HTM) can be, for instance compounds from the diamine class, where a delocalized pi-electron system conjugated with lone electron pairs on the nitrogen atoms is provided at least between the two nitrogen atoms of the diamine molecule. Examples are N4,N4′-di(naphthalen-1-yl)-N4,N4′-diphenyl-[1,1′-biphenyl]-4,4′-diamine (HTM1), N4,N4, N4″,N4″-tetra([1,1′-biphenyl]-4-yl)-[1,1′:4′,1″-terphenyl]-4,4″-diamine (HTM2). The synthesis of diamines is well described in literature; many diamine HTMs are readily commercially available.

Hole-Injecting Layer (HIL)

The HIL is a layer which facilitates the injection of holes from the anode or from the hole generating side of a CGL into an adjacent HTL. Typically, the HIL is a very thin layer (<10 nm). The hole injection layer can be a pure layer of p-dopant and can be about 1 nm thick. When the HTL is doped, an HIL may not be necessary, since the injection function is already provided by the HTL.

Light-Emitting Layer (LEL)

The light emitting layer must comprise at least one emission material and can optionally comprise additional layers. If the LEL comprises a mixture of two or more materials the charge carrier injection can occur in different materials for instance in a material which is not the emitter, or the charge carrier injection can also occur directly into the emitter. Many different energy transfer processes can occur inside the LEL or adjacent LELs leading to different types of emission. For instance excitons can be formed in a host material and then be transferred as singlet or triplet excitons to an emitter material which can be singlet or triplet emitter which then emits light. A mixture of different types of emitter can be provided for higher efficiency. White light can be realized by using emission from an emitter host and an emitter dopant. In one of possible embodiments, the light emitting layer may comprise at least one polymer. There are known many fluorescent polymers; alternatively or in addition, the polymer may serve as a host for a phosphorescent emitter. In another embodiment, the emitter may be a low-molecular compound processable by vacuum thermal evaporation. Metal-free organic compounds, for example polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbons, polycyclic heteroaromatic compounds, polycyclic aromatic amines, and compounds designed as various combinations of such building blocks, are frequently used as fluorescent emitters, whereas metal complexes or organometallic compounds frequently serve as phosphorescent emitters.

Hole Blocking Layer (HBL) and Electron Blocking Layer (EBL)

Blocking layers can be used to improve the confinement of charge carriers in the LEL, these blocking layers are further explained in U.S. Pat. No. 7,074,500 B2.

Electron-Transporting Layer (ETL)

The ETL is a layer comprising a large gap semiconductor responsible for electron transport from the cathode or electrons from a CGL or EIL (see below) to the LEL. The ETL is comprised between the cathode and the LEL or between the electron generating side of a CGL and the LEL. The ETL can be mixed with an electrical n-dopant, in which case it is said the ETL is n-doped. The ETL can be comprised by several layers, which can have different compositions. Electrical n-doping the ETL lowers its resistivity and/or improves its ability to inject electrons into an adjacent layer and avoids the respective power loss due to the otherwise high resistivity (and/or bad injection ability) of the undoped semiconductor. If the used electrical doping creates new charge carriers in the extent that substantially increases conductivity of the doped semiconducting material in comparison with the undoped ETM, then the doped ETL can also be used as optical spacer, because it can be made very thick, up to 1000 nm or more without significant increase in the operational voltage of the device comprising such doped ETL. One often preferred mode of electrical doping that is supposed to create new charge carriers is so called redox doping. In case of n-doping, the redox doping corresponds to the transfer of an electron from the dopant to a matrix molecule.

In case of electrical n-doping with metals used as dopants in their substantially elemental form, it is supposed that the electron transfer from the metal atom to the matrix molecule results in a metal cation and an anion radical of the matrix molecule. Hopping of the single electron from the anion radical to an adjacent neutral matrix molecule is the currently supposed mechanism of charge transport in redox n-doped semiconductors.

Electron transport semiconducting materials comprising a substantially covalent matrix n-doped with alkali metals can be combined with metallic layers according to the invention. As disclosed in the summary of the invention, the chemical composition of the substantially covalent matrix material is not particularly limited. Advantageous are matrix compounds comprising polar groups, for example organic compounds comprising a nitrogen or phosphorus heterocycle, or compounds comprising a phosphine oxide group. Among matrices comprising phosphorus heterocycles, phosphepine compounds have been proven as very good matrix compounds. It is still hard to explain all properties of semiconductors n-doped with metals strictly in terms of electrical redox doping as described above. Especially the yet unknown synergies between first and second metal as observed in semiconducting materials of present invention represent an additional hint that metal doping in substantially covalent matrix materials may advantageously combine redox doping with certain effects of mixing matrix materials with metal atoms and/or their clusters. All observed effects are, however, compatible with commonly accepted hypothesis that supposed that metal doped semiconducting materials contain at least a part of the added metallic elements in their substantially elemental form.

Other layers with different functions can be included, and the device architecture can be adapted as known by the skilled m the art. For example, an Electron-Injecting Layer (EIL) made of metal, metal complex or metal salt can be used between the cathode and the ETL.

Charge Generation Layer (CGL)

The OLED can comprise a CGL which can be used in conjunction with an electrode as inversion contact, or as connecting unit in stacked OLEDs. A CGL can have various configurations and names, examples are pn-junction, connecting unit, tunnel junction, etc. Examples are pn-junctions as disclosed in US 2009/0045728 A1, US 2010/0288362 A1.

Stacked OLEDs

When the OLED comprises two or more LELs separated by CGLs, the OLED is called a stacked OLED, otherwise it is called a single unit OLED. The group of layers between two closest CGLs or between one of the electrodes and the closest CGL is called a electroluminescent unit (ELU). Therefore, a stacked OLED can be described as anode/ELU₁/{CGL_(X)/ELU_(1+X)}_(X)/cathode, wherein x is a positive integer and each CGL_(X) or each ELU_(1+X) can be equal or different. The CGL can also be formed by the adjacent layers of two ELUs as disclosed in US2009/0009072 A1. Further stacked OLEDs are described e.g. in US 2009/0045728 A1, US 2010/0288362 A1, and references therein.

Deposition of Organic Layers

Any organic layer of the electronic device can be deposited by known techniques, such as vacuum thermal evaporation (VTE), organic vapour phase deposition, laser induced thermal transfer, spin coating, blade coating, slot dye coating, inkjet printing, etc. A preferred method for preparing the OLED according to the invention is vacuum thermal evaporation. Polymeric materials are preferably processed by coating techniques from solutions in appropriate solvents.

Metal Deposition

The metallic layer of present invention contains the first metal and the second metal in their substantially elemental forms. Consequently, it is advantageous that in the process of the present invention, at least one first metal and at least one second metal are vaporized from their elemental or substantially elemental form. In this context, the term “substantially metallic composition” shall be understood as a composition that comprises at least one first metal and at least one second metal, each at least partially, in a substantially elemental form as defined above.

Any metal vapour released from a composition comprising only metals and/or metal alloys is considered to comprise the metal in a substantially elemental form. Typically, caesium vapour release from gallium or bismuth alloys according to EP 1 648 042 B1 or WO2007/109815 is understood as the vaporization of one metallic component from a substantially metallic composition providing thus substantially elemental form of the vaporized caesium metal.

Oppositely and more generally, it may be reasonably expected that any substantially metallic composition comprising metals may, if heated in vacuum, release metal vapours at least partly in their substantially elemental form, especially in cases that optional non-metallic components of the substantially metallic composition are chemically inert and/or non-volatile, or in cases that these optional non-metallic components represent a minor part of the composition, preferably less than 20 at %, more preferably less than 10 at %, even more preferably less than 5 at %, even more preferably less than 2 at %, most preferably less than 1 at %.

It shall be mentioned that metallic layers of the present invention might be accessible by conventional way, that is, by vaporization of the first metal from a first vaporization source and of the second metal from a second vaporization source.

This conventional process has its advantage in the possibility of adjusting the temperature of each of the first and second vaporization source separately, what enables an easier adjustment of vaporization rates of the first metal and of the second metal to their different volatilities. The disadvantages are complexity of the equipment and difficulty to ensure reproducible deposition ratio of both components, especially on large area surfaces.

It was, however, surprisingly found by the inventors that at pressures below 10⁻² Pa, volatilities of the first metal selected from the group Li, Na, K, Rb and Cs and of the second metal selected from Zn, Cd, Hg and Te are close enough that they may enable vaporization of the first and of the second metal from a single (first) vaporization source, especially if the volatilities of both metals are further properly adjusted to each other by design of the composition loaded in the first vaporization source as a substantially metallic composition, wherein the first and the second metal are at least partially in mutual contact enabling their mutual interaction.

Designing the metal composition in the form of an alloy comprising the first and the second metal instead of loading particular metals in the vaporization source in their substantially neat form was proven as advantageous. It was further proven as particularly advantageous if the alloy comprises the first and the second metal at least partly in one homogeneous phase.

It was further found as particularly advantageous if the homogeneous phase comprising the first and the second metal has a sufficiently high melting point, preferably above the melting point of the first metal as well as above the melting point of the second metal. Under a sufficiently low operational pressure, typically below 10⁻² Pa, the sufficiently high melting point can enable the most preferable embodiment of the inventive process, wherein the composition of the first and the second metal sublimes congruently, without change in the ratio of the first and of the second metal. In this embodiment, the ratio of vaporization rates of the first and of the second metal becomes independent from the temperature of the first vaporization source provided with the composition, and the temperature of the first vaporization source controls the overall vaporization rate of the first and second metal together, in the fixed atomic ratio set by the design of the composition.

Electrical Doping

The most reliable and, at the same time, efficient OLEDs are OLEDs comprising electrically doped layers. Generally, the electrical doping means improving of electrical properties, especially the conductivity and/or injection ability of a doped layer in comparison with neat charge-transporting matrix without a dopant. In the narrower sense, which is usually called redox doping or charge transfer doping, hole transport layers are doped with a suitable acceptor material (p-doping) or electron transport layers with a donor material (n-doping), respectively. Through redox doping, the density of charge carriers in organic solids (and therefore the conductivity) can be increased substantially. In other words, the redox doping increases the density of charge carriers of a semiconducting matrix in comparison with the charge carrier density of the undoped matrix. The use of doped charge-carrier transport layers (p-doping of the hole transport layer by admixture of acceptor-like molecules, n-doping of the electron transport layer by admixture of donor-like molecules) in organic light-emitting diodes is, e.g., described in US 2008/203406 and U.S. Pat. No. 5,093,698.

US2008227979 discloses in detail the charge-transfer doping of organic transport materials, with inorganic and with organic dopants. Basically, an effective electron transfer occurs from the dopant to the matrix increasing the Fermi level of the matrix. For an efficient transfer in a p-doping case, the LUMO energy level of the dopant is preferably more negative than the HOMO energy level of the matrix or at least not more than slightly more positive, preferably not more than 0.5 eV more positive than the HOMO energy level of the matrix. For the n-doping case, the HOMO energy level of the dopant is preferably more positive than the LUMO energy level of the matrix or at least not more than slightly more negative, preferably not more than 0.5 eV lower compared to the LUMO energy level of the matrix. It is furthermore desired that the energy level difference for energy transfer from dopant to matrix is smaller than +0.3 eV.

Typical examples of known redox doped hole transport materials are: copper phthalocyanine (CuPc), which HOMO level is approximately −5.2 eV, doped with tetrafluorotetracyanoquinonedimethane (F4TCNQ), which LUMO level is about −5.2 eV; zinc phthalocyanine (ZnPc) (HOMO=−5.2 eV) doped with F4TCNQ; α-NPD (N,N′-Bis(naphthalen-1-yl)-N,N′-bis(phenyl)-benzidine) doped with F4TCNQ. α-NPD doped with 2,2′-(perfluoronaphthalene-2,6-diylidene) dimalononitrile (PD1). α-NPD doped with 2,2′,2″-(cyclopropane-1,2,3-triylidene)tris(2-(p-cyanotetrafluorophenyl)acetonitrile) (PD2). All p-doping in the device examples of the present application was done with 8 mol % of PD2.

Typical examples of known redox doped electron transport materials are: fullerene C60 doped with acridine orange base (AOB); perylene-3,4,9,10-tetracarboxylic-3,4,9,10-dianhydride (PTCDA) doped with leuco crystal violet; 2,9-di (phenanthren-9-yl)-4,7-diphenyl-1,10-phenanthroline doped with tetrakis (1,3,4,6,7,8-hexahydro-2H-pyrimido [1,2-a] pyrimidinato) ditungsten (II) (W₂(hpp)₄); naphthalene tetracarboxylic acid di-anhydride (NTCDA) doped with 3,6-bis-(dimethyl amino)-acridine; NTCDA doped with bis(ethylene-dithio) tetrathiafulvalene (BEDT-TTF).

Besides the redox dopants, certain metal salts can be alternatively used for electrical n-doping resulting in lowering operational voltage in devices comprising the doped layers in comparison with the same device without metal salt. True mechanism how these metal salts, sometimes called “electrically doping additives”, contribute to the lowering of the voltage in electronic devices, is not yet known. It is believed that they change potential barriers on the interfaces between adjacent layers rather than conductivities of the doped layers, because their positive effect on operational voltages is achieved only if layers doped with these additives are very thin. Usually, the electrically undoped or additive doped layers are thinner than 50 nm, preferably thinner than 40 nm, more preferably thinner than 30 nm, even more preferably thinner than 20 nm, most preferably thinner than 15 nm. If the manufacturing process is, precise enough, the additive doped layers can be advantageously made thinner than 10 nm or even thinner than 5 rim.

Typical representatives of metal salts which are effective as electrical dopants are salts comprising metal cations bearing one or two elementary charges. Favourably, salts of alkali metals or alkaline earth metals are used. The anion of the salt is preferably an anion providing the salt with sufficient volatility, allowing its deposition under high vacuum conditions, especially in the temperature and pressure range which is comparable with the temperature and pressure range suitable for the deposition of the electron transporting matrix.

Example of such anion is 8-hydroxyquinolinolate anion. Its metal salts, for example lithium 8-hydroxyquinolinolate (LiQ) represented by the formula D1

are well known as electrically doping additives.

Another class of metal salts useful as electrical dopants in electron transporting matrices represent compounds disclosed in the application PCT/EP2012/074127 (WO2013/079678), having general formula (II)

wherein A¹ is a C₆-C₂₀ arylene and each of A²-A³ is independently selected from a C₆-C₂₀ aryl, wherein the aryl or arylene may be unsubstituted or substituted with groups comprising C and H or with a further LiO group, provided that the given C count in an aryl or arylene group includes also all substituents present on the said group. It is to be understood that the term substituted or unsubstituted arylene stands for a divalent radical derived from substituted or unsubstituted arene, wherein the both adjacent structural moieties (in formula (I), the OLi group and the diaryl prosphine oxide group) are attached directly to an aromatic ring of the arylene group. This class of dopants is represented by compound D2

wherein Ph is phenyl.

Yet another class of metal salts useful as electrical dopants in electron transporting matrices represent compounds disclosed in the application PCT/EP2012/074125 (WO2013/079676), having general formula (III)

wherein M is a metal ion, each of A⁴-A⁷ is independently selected from H, substituted or unsubstituted C₆-C₂₀ aryl and substituted or unsubstituted C₂-C₂₀ heteroaryl and n is valence of the metal ion. This class of dopants is represented by compound D3

Additive materials can be utilized in devices according to present invention for example in an electron injection or electron transport layer, whereas the inventive metallic layer is used in charge generation layer. Alternatively or in addition, the metallic layer according to present invention can be used as electron injection layer, whereas the additive can be used in charge generation layer.

V. ADVANTAGEOUS EFFECT OF THE INVENTION

The inventors surprisingly found that zinc alloys of alkali metals are, in broad composition range and in broad range of deposition rates, preparatively sublimable in high vacuum at pressures below 10⁻² Pa.

Further experiments showed that vaporization of metal alloys or substantially metallic compositions from one vaporization source offers a broadly applicable and technically simple method for reproducible preparation of metallic layers comprising the first and the second metal as described above. Studying devices comprising such metallic layers in detail, the inventors arrived at another unexpected finding that the inventive metallic layers significantly differ from known metallic layers consisting of single electropositive metal, e.g. Li. Whereas the known layers usually show a quite sharp thickness optimum, devices comprising the inventive layers with significantly higher thicknesses were still proven efficient.

Furthermore, the inventive metallic layer exhibit quite surprising optical properties, e.g. improved optical transparency in comparison with layers of neat metals having comparable thickness.

These findings open new options for design and manufacturing of electronic devices as well as for their manufacturing in industrial scale.

VI. EXAMPLES

Auxiliary Materials

Auxiliary Procedures

Cyclic Voltammetry

The redox potentials given at particular compounds were measured in an argon deaerated, dry 0.1M THF solution of the tested substance, under argon atmosphere, with 0.1M tetrabutylammonium hexafluorophosphate supporting electrolyte, between platinum working electrodes and with an Ag/AgCl pseudo-standard electrode, consisting of a silver wire covered by silver chloride and immersed directly in the measured solution, with the scan rate 100 mV/s. The first run was done in the broadest range of the potential set on the working electrodes, and the range was then adjusted within subsequent runs appropriately. The final three runs were done with the addition of ferrocene (in 0.1M concentration) as the standard. The average of potentials corresponding to cathodic and anodic peak of the studied compound, after subtraction of the average of cathodic and anodic potentials observed for the standard Fc⁺/Fc redox couple, afforded finally the values reported above. All studied phosphine oxide compounds as well as the reported comparative compounds showed well-defined reversible electrochemical behaviour.

Synthesis Examples

The synthesis of metal alloys was accomplished by standard metallurgical procedures, by melting elements under argon atmosphere in sealed tantalum or ceramic crucibles.

Prepared alloys were tested as evaporable dopants for preparation of semiconducting materials and metallic layers, both directly as well as after purification by vacuum preparative sublimation.

Examples of the use of prepared alloys are given in the Table 1.

Device Examples Example 1 (Blue OLED)

A first blue emitting device was made by depositing a 10 nm layer of A1 doped with PD2 (matrix to dopant weight ratio of 92:8 wt %) onto an ITO-glass substrate, followed by a 125 nm undoped layer of A1 and 5 nm undoped layer of A2. Subsequently, a blue fluorescent emitting layer of ABH113 (Sun Fine Chemicals) doped with NUBD370 (Sun Fine Chemicals) (97:3 wt %) was deposited with a thickness of 20 nm. An optional 4 rim interlayer of compound A3 was omitted and a 35 nm layer of a chosen matrix compound was deposited directly on the emitting layer, followed by 10 nm thick electron injection layer formed by deposition of Na—Zn alloy comprising 2.6 wt % Na and 97.4 wt % Zn. Finally, an aluminium layer with a thickness of 100 nm was deposited as a cathode on top of the testing semiconducting layer.

The observed voltages, quantum efficiencies and y-coordinate in the colour space according to Internal Commission on Illumination (CIE) at a current density 10 mA/cm² are reported in the Table 1.

TABLE 1 U EQE matrix (V) (%) CIE1931y A7 3.33 5.97 0.098 A6 3.23 5.27 0.091 A5 3.76 5.72 0.096 A4 3.35 5.93 0.096

Used Abbreviations

at % atomic percent

CGL charge generating layer

CV cyclic voltammetry

DCM dichloromethane

DSC differential scanning calorimetry

EIL electron injecting layer

EQE external quantum efficiency of electroluminescence

ETL electron transporting layer

ETM electron transport matrix

EtOAc ethyl acetate

Fc⁺/Fc ferrocenium/ferrocene reference system

h hour

HIL hole injecting layer

HOMO highest occupied molecular orbital

HTL hole transporting layer

HTM hole transport matrix

ITO indium tin oxide

LUMO lowest unoccupied molecular orbital

LEL light emitting layer

LiQ lithium 8-hydroxyquinolinolate

MeOH methanol

mol % molar percent

OLED organic light emitting diode

QA quality assurance

RT room temperature

THF tetrahydrofuran

UV ultraviolet (light)

vol % volume percent

v/v volume/volume (ratio)

VTE vacuum thermal evaporation

wt % weight (mass) percent 

1. A metallic layer adjacent to a semiconducting layer comprising a substantially covalent matrix material, the metallic layer comprising at least one first metal and at least one second metal, wherein a) the first metal is selected from the group consisting of Li, Na, K, Rb, and Cs; and b) the second metal is selected from the group consisting of Zn, Hg, Cd, and Te.
 2. The metallic layer according to claim 1, wherein the metallic layer has thickness in the range 1-100 nm.
 3. The metallic layer according to claim 1, wherein the first metal is selected as Na or Li and/or the second metal is selected as Zn and/or Te.
 4. Electronic device comprising at least two distinct layers sandwiched between a first electrode and a second electrode and, optionally, other parts of the device arranged outside the space between the electrodes, wherein the distinct layers comprise the metallic layer adjacent to the semiconducting layer according to claim
 1. 5. Electronic device according to claim 4 which is an organic light emitting diode or an organic photovoltaic device.
 6. Electronic device according to claim 4, wherein the metallic layer is adjacent to one of the electrodes.
 7. Electronic device according to claim 4, wherein the metallic layer is an electron injection layer or a part of a charge generation layer.
 8. Process for preparation of the metallic layer according to claim 1, the process comprising the steps (i) providing the semiconducting layer, (ii) co-vaporizing, at a pressure less than 10⁻² Pa, a composition provided in a vaporization source which is heated to a temperature between 100° C. and 600° C., wherein the composition comprises a) at least one first metal selected from the group consisting of Li, Na, K, Rb, and Cs; and b) at least one second metal selected from the group consisting of Zn, Hg, Cd, and Te, and (iii) at least one subsequent step of co-deposition, wherein the first metal and the second metal are deposited on a surface, wherein the surface is the surface of the semiconducting layer provided in the step (i) and the surface has a temperature which is below the temperature of the vaporization source.
 9. Process according to claim 8, wherein the composition is substantially metallic.
 10. Process according to claim 9, wherein the substantially metallic composition is a metal alloy and the temperature of the vaporization source is lower than the melting point of the metal alloy.
 11. Process according to claim 9, wherein the composition is a metal alloy, and the metal alloy comprises a homogeneous phase comprising the first metal and the second metal.
 12. Process according to claim 9, wherein the substantially metallic composition is a metal alloy, and the metal alloy has a higher melting point than the first metal and/or the second metal.
 13. Process according to claim 8, wherein the first metal is sodium and/or the second metal is zinc.
 14. Process for preparation of an electronic device according to claim 4, the process comprising the steps (i) providing subsequently the first electrode and, if present in the device, the layers arranged between the first electrode and the semiconducting layer, (ii) providing, subsequently, the semiconducting layer and the metallic layer by a process according to claim 8, and (iii) providing, if present in the device, the remaining layers between the metallic layer and the second electrode, the second electrode, and, if present, any other parts of the device arranged outside the space between the electrodes.
 15. Use of a metal alloy, the alloy comprising at least one homogeneous phase comprising at least one first metal selected from Li, Na, K, Rb and Cs and at least one second metal selected from Zn, Cd, Hg and Te, for (i) preparing of the metallic layer according to claim 1, and/or (ii) preparing of the electronic device according to claim
 4. 16. The metallic layer according to claim 3, wherein the first metal is selected as Na and the second metal is selected as Zn.
 17. Electronic device according to claim 7, wherein the metallic layer is an electron injecting part of the charge generation layer. 